Sources and Suggestions for Further Inquiry

Victoria Berdon

This resource for The Least of My Brothers lists other materials you might like to examine to further your understanding of the medical and ethical aspects of the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, as well as the social, cultural, and historical setting. Included are links to other websites, titles of books, historical documents (and links to them, where possible), news media, and other useful reference materials. Close this window when you are ready to return to the scenario.

Sources of Primary Value | Other Sources of Historical Documents | Other Interesting Sources

Sources of Primary Value

Jones, James H. Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New and Expanded Edition. New York: The Free Press, 1993. vii, 297. [Note: This is the single most commonly referenced source for information about the study. Jones provides details of the study, from an innocent inception to the malignant turn and its consequences for the participants as well as for the provision of public health. This one study is responsible for many of the changes to codes of medical ethics developed and/or modified since the exposure of the study and its abuses. It becomes clear that the moral tone shifts over time, and that there are influences other than the patients’ best interests governing many of the decisions.]
Reverby, Susan M., ed. Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. xi, 630. [Note: In this 600+ page collection, Reverby provides broad and extensive coverage of the most important literature available to date. Many of the documents included are historically important:
- Letters between the United States Public Health Service, the Macon County Health Department, and the Tuskegee Institute, 1932-1972;
- Interviews with and testimony of four of the survivors in 1973;
- Testimony by Peter Buxtun in 1973;
- Interviews with and articles about Nurse Rivers and her participation;
- Effects on attitudes about medical treatment in minority and other communities; and
- President Clinton’s apology to the survivors in 1996.]

Other Interesting Sources

Sex Education and Syphilis: Information and Attitudes 1829 – 1924
Neurosyphilis Studies Prior to the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee
Syphilis Studies Begun after the Start of the 1930 Demonstration of Its Prevalence
13 Articles Generated by the Researchers Doing the Study
Nurse Eunice Rivers
Reaction to the Study After It Became Public
Effects of the Study on Research Ethics after 1972
President Clinton’s Apology
Other Items of Historical Interest

Sex Education and Syphilis: Information and Attitudes 1829 – 1924

A Treatise on Marriage and Health: Vital Facts Concerning Diseases of Mind and Body. Chicago: Bellevue Medical Institute, 1987. [Note: This book includes the phrase "blood poisoning" to refer to syphilis, which is similar to the phrase "bad blood." The book is also a good example of the literature of the time on syphilis and sexuality in general.]
Bacot, John. A Treatise on Syphilis, in which the history, symptoms, and method of treating every form of that disease are fully considered. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green Publishers, 1829.
Boas, Ernst Philip, M.D. "The Relative Prevalence of Syphilis among Negroes and Whites." Social Hygiene. Vol. I. New York: The American Hygiene Association, 1914. 610-616.
Cabot, Hugh M.D. "Syphilis and Society." Social Hygiene. Vol. II. New York: The American Hygiene Association, 1916. 347-362.
Gerrish, Frederic H. M.D., LL.D. Sex Hygiene: A Talk to College Boys. Boston: The Gorham Press, 1917.
Gould, A. and Dr. Franklin Dubois. The Science of Regeneration. Chicago: Advanced Thought Publishing Company, 1911.
Hall, Lesley A. "Men, Sex and Social Change in 1920s Britain." Social History 1:1 (Jan. 1996). [Note: This contemporary article discusses changes in attitudes about sexuality, highlighting the shift from the "moral" approach to a "scientific" approach to public discussion of the social problems associated with sexuality and the spread of syphilis. Hall has written other pieces on the place of syphilis in history.]
Haller, John S. Jr. American Medicine in Transition 1840-1910. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1962.
Harris, Vivian Hadley. "The Status of Sex Education in Public Educational Institutions." Social Hygiene. Vol. VII. New York: The American Hygiene Association, 1921. 167-180.
Moran, Jeffrey P. "Modernism Gone Mad: Sex Education Comes to Chicago, 1913." The Journal of American History 83:2 (Sep. 1996), 481.
Smith, Susan Lynn. Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women’s Health Activism in America, 1890-1950. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
Stokes, John H. "Venereal Disease Control: Problems and Methods." Journal of the American Medical Association 90 (10 Mar. 1928), 743-747.
Taylor, Robert W. A Clinical Atlas of Venereal and Skin Diseases, including Diagnosis, Prognosis and Treatment. Philadelphia: Lea Brothers and Company, 1889.
Vedder, Edward B. "The Prevalence and Prevention of Syphilis." Social Hygiene. Vol. II. New York: The American Hygiene Association, 1916. 375-381.
Usilton, Lida J. "The Status of Sex Education in the Senior High Schools of the United States in 1927." Venereal Disease Bulletin 87 (1928), 15 pages. Published by the Division of Venereal Diseases, United States Public Health Service.
Walker, E. C. What the Young Need to Know--A Primer of Sexual Rationalism. Chicago: M. Harman Publishing, 1897.

Other Interesting Sources

Neurosyphilis Studies Prior to the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee

Hubbard, L. D. "A comparative study of syphilis in colored and in white women with mental disorder." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 12:2 (Aug. 1924), 198-205.
Keidel, Albert and Moore, Earle. "Studies in asymptomatic neurosyphilis." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 6:3 (Sep. 1921), 286-291.
Lowrey, Lawson G. "Further observations on neurosyphilis and the psychoses." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 3:5 (May 1920), 498-529.
Omar, H. and Carroll, P. H. "Serologic changes in neurosyphilitic patients during a period of nontreatment." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 7:1 (Jun. 1922), 773-738.
Schaller, Walter F. and Mehrtens, Henry G. "Therapy in neurosyphilis, with particular reference to intraspinal therapy." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 7:1 (Jan. 1919), 59-66.
Solomon, H. C. and Taft, A. E. "Effects of antisyphilitic therapy as indicated by the histologic study of the cerebral cortex in cases of general paresis." Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 8:4 (Oct. 1922), 341-365.

Other Interesting Sources

Syphilis Studies Begun after the Start of the 1930 Demonstration of Its Prevalence

Cauldwell, David Oliver. The Latest So-called Miracle Cures for Syphilis: Will Penicillin go the Way of Other Cures?: History and facts about syphilis, its complications and treatment. Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1947.
Cauldwell, David Oliver. The One-Shot Cure for Syphilis and Gonorrhea: The latest facts about this new approach, how it came about, what it is and how it works, including some angles the professors and moralists have overlooked. Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1949.
Deibert, A.V. and Bruyer, M.C. "Untreated syphilis in the male Negro III. Evidence of cardiovascular abnormalities and other forms of morbidity." Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946), 301-314.
Heller, J.R., Jr. and Bruyere, P.T. "Untreated syphilis in the male Negro II. Mortality during 12 years of observation." Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946), 34-38.
Johnson, Charles Spurgeon. Shadow of the Plantation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934.
Parran, Thomas. Shadow on the Land: Syphilis. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1937.
Pesare, P.J. et al. "Untreated syphilis in the Male Negro. Observation of abnormalities over 16 years." American Journal of Syphilis, Gonorrhea, and Venereal Diseases 34 (1950), 201-213.
Rivers, Eunice, R.N. et al. "Twenty Years of Follow-up Experience in a Long-Range Medical Study." Public Health Reports 68:4 (Apr. 1953), 391-395.
Stokes, John H. et al. Modern Clinical Syphilology: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Case Study. Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company, 1941.
Stokes, John H. Some Problems on the Control of Syphilis as a Disease. American Social Hygiene Association, 1939. 27 pages.
Vonderlehr, R. A. and Usilton, Lida J. "The Chance of Acquiring Syphilis and the Frequency of its Disastrous Outcome." Venereal Disease Information 19 (Nov. 1938). 9 pages.
Vonderlehr, R. A. and Usilton, Lida J. "The Extent of the Syphilis Problem at the Beginning of the World War II." New York State Journal of Medicine. 43:19 (1 Oct. 1943), 1825-1829.
Vonderlehr, R.A. et al. "Untreated syphilis in the male Negro. A Comparative Study of Treated and Untreated Cases." Journal of Venereal Disease Information 17 (1936), 260-265.

Other Interesting Sources

13 Articles Generated by the Researchers Doing the Study

In chronological order:

1936	Vonderlehr, R.A. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Comparative Study of Treated and Untreated Cases." Venereal Disease Information 17 (1936), 260-65.
1946	Heller, J.R. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: II. Mortality During 12 Years of Observation." Venereal Disease Information 27(1946), 34-38.
1946	Deibert, A.V. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: III. Evidence of Cardiovascular Abnormalities Over Sixteen Years." Journal of Venereal Disease Information 27 (1946), 301-314.
1950	Pesare, Pasquale J. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Observation of Abnormalities Over Sixteen Years." American Journal of Syphilis, Gonorrhea, and Venereal Diseases 34 (1950), 201-213.
1953	Rivers, Eunice et al. "Twenty Years of Follow-Up Experience in a Long-Range Medical Study." Public Health Reports 68 (1953), 391-95.
1954	Shafer, J.K. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Prospective Study of the Effect on Life Expectancy." Public Health Reports 69 (1954) and Milbank Fund Memorial Quarterly 32 (1954), 261-74.
1954	Olansky, Sydney et al. "Environmental Factors in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis." Public Health Reports 69 (1954), 691-98.
1955	Peters, Jesse J. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Pathologic Findings in Syphilitic and Nonsyphilitic Patients." Journal of Chronic Diseases 1 (1955), 127-48.
1955	Schuman, Stanley H. et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Background and Current Status of Patients in the Tuskegee Study." Journal of Chronic Diseases 2 (1955), 543-58.
1956	Olansky, Sydney et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: X. Twenty Years of Clinical Observation of Untreated Syphilitic and Presumably Nonsyphilitic Groups." Journal of Chronic Diseases 4 (1956), 177-85.
1956	Olansky, Sydney et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: Twenty-two Years of Serologic Observation in a Selected Syphilis Study Group." AMA Archives of Dermatology 73 (1956), 516-22.
1961	Rockwell, Donald H. et al. "The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis: The 30th Year of Observation." Archives of Internal Medicine 114 (1961), 792-98.
1973	Caldwell, Joseph G. et al. "Aortic Regurgitation in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis." Journal of Chronic Diseases 26 (1973), 187-94.

Other Interesting Sources

Nurse Eunice Rivers

Dibble and Smith’s articles discuss the complexity in trying to assess Nurse Rivers’ role as the primary liaison between the subjects and the doctors performing the study.

Dibble, Helen and Williams, Daniel. "An Interview with Nurse Rivers." Reverby, Susan M., ed. Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
Reverby, Susan M. "Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Nurse Rivers, Silence, and the Meaning of Treatment." Reverby, Susan M., ed. Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
Rivers, Eunice et al. "Twenty Years of Follow-Up Experience in a Long-Range Medical Study." Public Health Reports 68 (1953), 391-95.
Smith, Susan L. "Neither Victim nor Villain: Eunice Rivers and Public Health Work." In Reverby, Susan M., ed. Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.

Other Interesting Sources

Reaction to the Study After It Became Public

Reactions extend far beyond the study itself and currently effect other major public health issues such as with AIDS education, prevention, and treatment.

In chronological order:

1966	Buxtun, Peter. Letter from Peter Buxtun to Dr. William Brown, Director of the Division of Venereal Diseases, November 6, 1966. Tuskegee Files, Center for Disease Control. [Note: This is the original letter in which Buxtun expresses moral concerns about the study.]
1972	Kampmeier, R.H. "The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis." Southern Medical Journal 65:10 (Oct. 1972), 1247-51.
1973	United States. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel: Final Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health Service, 1973.
1973	"The Tuskegee Study." Journal of the Oklahoma State Medical Association 66:2 (Feb. 1973), 47-51.
1973	"Treponemes and Tuskegee." Lancet 1:7817 (23 Jun. 1973), 1438.
1973	Cobb, W.M. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study." Journal of the National Medical Association 65:4 (Jul. 1973), 345-48.
1973	Curran, W.J. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study." New England Journal of Medicine 289:14 (4 Oct. 1973), 730-31.
1974	MacDonald, C.J. "Communications: The contribution of the Tuskegee study to medical knowledge." Journal of the National Medical Association 6:1 (Jan. 1974), 1-7.
1974	Kampmeier R.H. "Final report on the 'Tuskegee Syphilis Study.'" Southern Medical Journal 67:11 (Nov. 1974), 1349-53.
1981	Jones, James H. Bad Blood: the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New York: Macmillan, 1993, c1981. [Note: This is the single most-cited book on the study. It presents an excellent history, with extensive documentation and bibliography. If you read only one thing, read this. This book also contains a chapter on the effects of the study on attitudes of American blacks toward the public health system today, especially with regard to AIDS.]
1996	Roy, B. "The Julius Rosenwald Fund syphilis seroprevalence studies." Journal of the National Medical Association 88:5 (May 1996), 315-22.
2000	Thomas, Stephen B. and Quinn, Sandra Crouse. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study 1932-1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Education Programs in the Black Community." Reverby, Susan M. ed. Tuskegee ’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.

Other Interesting Sources

Effects of the Study on Research Ethics after 1972

In chronological order:

1975	Cave, V.G. "Proper uses and abuses of the health care delivery system for minorities with special reference to the Tuskegee syphilis study." Journal of the National Medical Association 67:1 (Jan. 1975), 82-4.
1978	Benedek, T.G. "The ‘Tuskegee Study’ of syphilis: analysis of moral versus methodologic aspects." Journal of Chronic Diseases 31:1 (Jan. 1978), 35-50.
1978	Brandt, Allan. "Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study." Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health. Edited by Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. 331-343. Originally published in Hastings Center Report 8:6 (Dec. 1978), 21-29. Also in Reverby, 2000.
1982	Rothman, D.J. "Were the Tuskegee and Willowbrook ‘studies in nature’?" Hastings Center Report 12:2 (Apr. 1982), 5-7.
1982	Savitt, Todd L. "The Use of Blacks for Medical Experimentation and Demonstration in the Old South," Journal of Southern History 48 (Aug. 1982), 331-48.
1982	Shick , Tom W. "Race, Class, and Medicine: ‘Bad Blood’ in Twentieth-Century America." Journal of Ethnic Studies 10 (Summer 1982), 97-105.
1985	Solomon, Martha. "The rhetoric of dehumanization: an analysis of medical reports of the Tuskegee syphilis project." Western Journal of Speech and Communication 49:4 (1985), 233-47.
1987	Brandt, Allan M. No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the U.S. since 1880. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
1988	Coney, Sandra and Bunkle, Phillida. "An Unfortunate Experiment at National Women’s," Monash Bioethics Review 8:1 (1988): 3-36. [Note: Notice the year – 1988 – and the similarity of the study reported herein to the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.]
1990	Yoon, Carol Kaesuk. "Families Emerge as Silent Victims of Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment" New York Times 146 (5 May 1990).
1991	Thomas S.B., Quinn, S.C. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community." American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991), 1498-1506.
1992	Annas, George J. and Grodin, Michael A., eds. The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
1992	Caplan, Arthur L. "When Evil Intrudes." Hastings Center Report 22:6 (Nov./Dec. 1992), 29-32.
1992	Edgar, Harold. "Outside the Community." Hastings Center Report 22:6 (Nov./Dec. 1992), 32-35.
1992	J.D.W. "Race, genocide, and public health." American Journal of Medicine 92:3 (Mar. 1992).
1992	Jones, James. "The Tuskegee Legacy: AIDS and the Black Community." Hastings Center Report 22:6 (Nov./Dec. 1992), 38-40.
1992	King, Patricia A. "The Dangers of Difference." Hastings Center Report 22:6 (Nov./Dec. 1992), 35-38.
1993	Susceptible to Kindness: Miss Evers’ Boys and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Videorecording. Ithaca , NY: Cornell University, 1993. [Note: Includes, among other things, excerpts from David Feldshuh’s play Miss Evers’ Boys and comments by nurses, physicians, government officials, and James Jones (the author of Bad Blood.)]
1993	Junod, Tom. "Deadly Medicine." GQ: Gentlemen’s Quarterly 63:6 (Jun. 1993).
1993	Critical Thinking in Nursing: Lessons from Tuskegee. Videorecording. New York, NY: National League for Nursing Videos, 1993. [Note: This program investigates nurse Eunice Rivers’s involvement in the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee and how it might be interpreted today.]
1993	The Deadly Deception. Videorecording. New York: Nova, WGBH Educational Foundation, 26 Jan. 1993. Produced and narrated by George Strait. [Note: See the review by Bryan and Peggy Bryers in Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, and review article "Practicing Bad Medicine" in Newsweek (1 Feb. 1993), 66.]
1994	Fourtner, A.W. et al. "Bad Blood: A case study of the Tuskegee syphilis project." Journal of College Science Teaching 23 (1994), 277-285.
1994	Solomon, Martha. "The rhetoric of dehumanization: an analysis of medical reports of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project." Critical Questions: Invention, Creativity, and the Criticism of Discourse and Media. Edited by William L. Nothstine, Carole Blair, Gary A. Copeland. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.
1994	Washington, Harriet. "Human Guinea Pigs." Emerge 6:1 (Oct. 1994), 24.
1995	Roy, B. "The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Biotechnology and the Administrative State." Journal of the National Medical Association 87:1 (Jan. 1995), 56-67.
1996	Smith, Susan L. "Neither Victim nor Villain: Nurse Eunice Rivers, the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, and Public Health Work." Journal of Women’s History 8:1 (Spr. 1996), 95-113.
1996	Venderpool, Harold Y. The Ethics of Research Involving Human Subjects: Facing the 21st Century. Frederick, MD: University Publishing Group, Frederick, 1996.
1996	Shelton, Deborah L. "The Legacy of Tuskegee." American Medical News 39:21 (3 Jun. 1996), 10-14.
1996	Coughlin, S.S. et al. "Remember Tuskegee: Public Health Student Knowledge of the Ethical Significance of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study." American Journal of Preventive Medicine 12:4 (Jul./Aug. 1996), 242-46.
1996	Pace, Brian P. and Sullivan-Fowler, Micaela. "Proposed Compensation for Tuskegee Study Men." Journal of the American Medical Association 276:20 (27 Nov. 1996), 1692.
1997	Gamble, Vanessa. "Under the shadow of Tuskegee: African Americans and health care." American Journal of Public Health 87:11 (Nov. 1997), 1773-1778.
1997	Geiger, H. Jack. "Annotation: Racism resurgent – building a bridge to the 19th century." American Journal of Public Health 87:11 (Nov. 1997), 1765.
1997	Wolinsky, Howard. "Steps still being taken to undo damage of America ’s Nuremberg ." Annals of Internal Medicine 127:4 (15 Aug. 1997), 1-43.
1997	Ho, David and Wilfert, Catherine. "AIDS experts quit NEJM over editorial." Women’s Health Weekly (27 Oct. 1997), 2-3.
1997	Sargent, Joseph, dir. Miss Evers’ Boys. Videorecording. HBO Films, 1997. Based on the play by David Feldshuh.
1998	Gray, Fred. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond. Montgomery, AL: Black Belt Press, 1998. [Note: Fred Gray is an attorney for some of the survivors.]
1998	Brawley, O.W. "The Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male." International Journal of Radiation Oncology and Biological Physics 40:1 (1 Jan. 1998), 5-8.
1999	Fairchild, Amy L. and Bayer, Ronald. "Uses and Abuses of Tuskegee." Science 284:5416 (7 May 1999), 919.
1999	Benedek, Thomas G. and Erlen, Jonathon. "The Scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis, 1920-1960." Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43:1 (Fall 1999), 1-30.
2000	Reverby, Susan, ed. Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
2000	White, Robert M. "Unraveling the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis." Archives of Internal Medicine 160:5 (2000), 585.

While the PHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee may not be directly responsible for changes to international codes of medical ethics, especially regarding informed consent, it is useful to see the progress made in this area. See the Resource entitled Codes of Medical and Human Experimentation Ethics, especially:

1947	The Nuremberg Code: Provides standards to be followed by physicians experimenting on human subjects. For example, the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent, and the experiment should protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability or death.
1948	Declaration of Geneva, Physician's Oath: (Revised in 1968, 1983, and 1994.) The physician pledges that the first commitment is to serve humanity, always putting the health of he patient first and will maintain the "utmost respect for human life."
1953	Wilson Memo: The subjects should be protected from harm as much as possible. If it looks like the experiment is doing more harm than good, the researcher must stop the experiment, no matter what stage it’s in.
2000	Declaration of Helsinki, Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects: The focus of the Introduction is the primacy of patient health and well-being, with special attention to those "research populations are vulnerable and need special protection" as well as for "those who cannot give or refuse consent for themselves, for those who may be subject to giving consent under duress, for those who will not benefit personally from the research and for those for whom the research is combined with care."

Other Interesting Sources

President Clinton’s Apology

Clinton, President William. An Apology for Study Done in Tuskegee. (16 May 1997). http://www.chron.com/content/chronicle/page1/97/05/17/clinton.2-0.html and http://www.tubioethics.org/about/intro/apology.htm .
Mathis, Nancy. On behalf of the nation, an apology. A report of President Clinton’s speech broadcast nationally at 9:26 PM (16 May 1997). Houston Chronicle, 1997.
"The Tuskegee Apology." Talk of the Nation. 16 May 1997. This is a discussion on the program between guests Vanessa Gamble and Stephen Thomas.
Reverby, Susan M. "History of an Apology: From Tuskegee to the White House." Research Nurse (Jul./Aug. 1997).
Harter, L.M. et al. "President Clinton’s Apology for the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: A narrative of remembrance, redefinition and reconciliation." Howard Journal of Communications 11:1 (Jan./Mar. 2000), 19-34.

Other Interesting Sources

Other Items of Historical Interest

Beaumont, William and Osler, William. Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, and the Physiology of Digestion. Plattsburgh: F.P. Allen, 1833. There is a 1929 reprint, as well as a Dover Publications edition, 1996.
Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. New York: Macmillan, 1927.
Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery: An Autobiography. New York: Carol Publishing Group Edition, 1989. [Note: It was as a consequence of reading this book that Julius Rosenwald wanted to meet Booker T. Washington.]

Other Interesting Sources

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